Mr. Dunbar
AP European History
Chapter 9: The Late
Middle Ages Outline
Chapter Overview: War, Plague, and Schism
·
Barbara Tuchman, a prominent historian,
describes the late Middle Ages as The
Calamitous Fourteenth Century.
Western Civilization was assaulted on several fronts including:
o
The Black Death (1348-1352)
o
The Hundred Years’ War (1337-1453) between France and England
o
Schism in the Catholic Church (1378-1417)
o
Invasions by the Turks
·
Amidst this mayhem, scholars began to criticize
medieval assumptions about the nature of God, humankind, and society.
Section One: The Black Death
·
Section
Overview:
o
Keep in mind that the plague struck Europe at a moment of vulnerability as the continent was
overpopulated and malnourished.
·
Preconditions
and Causes of the Plague
o
From 1000-1300, Europe ’s
population doubled
§
Population growth strained the food supply
§
Population growth led to high unemployment and
low wages
§
Crop failures between 1315 and 1317 exacerbated
the food shortage crisis
o
Black Death followed trade routes from Asia
§
Plague moved from south to north along major
trade routes
·
Popular
Remedies
o
Corruption in the atmosphere was believed to be
the cause of the plague
§
some blamed poisonous fumes from earthquakes
o
Remedies
§
many wore “aromatic” amulets
§
lifestyle changes
·
some thought moderate and temperate living would
save them from the plague
·
some indulged in excess (sexual promiscuity ran
high in infected areas)
·
others chose to flee the plague or remain in
seclusion
§
religious fanatacism
·
flagellants
·
Jews as scapegoats
o
Pogroms occurred in several cities
·
Social
and Economic Consequences
o
Farms decline
§
Supply and demand (fewer laborers, higher wages;
less demand for food, lower prices for agricultural products)
§
many serfs demanded money payments and some pursued
the more lucrative skilled craft industries in cities; the price of luxury and
manufactured goods rose
§
Noble landholders lost power as they were forced
to pay more for finished products and for farm labor, while receiving a smaller
return on their agricultural produce
o
Peasants Revolt
§
England
·
To recover losses, landholders instituted
oppressive laws that forced peasants to stay on their farms while freezing
their wages at low levels.
o
ie. English Parliament passed a Statute of
Laborers which set low prices for farm laborers and limited their mobility
·
English Peasants’ Revolt in 1381
§
France
·
Increase over the taille rate (mandatory tax on peasants) led to the Jacquiere (peasants’ revolt)
o
Cities Rebound
§
Omnipresence of death demand for luxury items (silks,
furs, jewelry, furniture)
prosperous cities
Omnipresence of death demand for luxury items (silks,
furs, jewelry, furniture)
prosperous cities
·
cities expanded legal autonomy from nobles and
kings they had enjoyed prior to the plague and expanded their influence to
surrounding areas.
·
Skilled artisans fought to retain the right to
limit the number of people in their industries
§
Impact of the plague on Church
·
Suffered as a landowner and was politically
weakened
·
Some increased revenue due to volume of
religious services and donations in honor of the dead
·
New
Conflicts and Opportunities
o
Guilds gained political power in local
governments
§
Guild masters and journeymen came into conflict
as the former wanted to restrict the number of masters while the latter wanted
to become a master
§
Merchant and patrician classes could no longer
bully the artisans
o
Kings expanded their power and fostered
nationalism as the influence of the nobility and the church waned
§
Hundred Years’ War showed the military
superiority of paid professional soldiers over that of the traditional noble
cavalry
Section Two: The Hundred Years’ War and the Rise of National Sentiment
·
Section
Overview
o
Throughout the fourteenth century, the
monarchies of England and France
demanded greater loyalty from their lords which, in turn, broke down
regionalism and led to the rise of national consciousness
o
Nationalist sentiments festered, giving way to
the Hundred Years’ War
·
The
Causes of the War
o
Dynastic struggle
§
English king Edward III, the grandson of Philip
the Fair of France, made a claim to the French throne after the French king
Charles IV, the last of Philip’s surviving sons, died without a male heir.
§
The French nobles named the first cousin of
Charles IV, Philip VI of Valois, king and his dynasty would rule into the
sixteenth century.
o
Relationship between England
and France
§
King of England was technically a vassal of the
king of France ,
as English monarchs possessed sizeable French territories dating back to the
Norman conquest
·
French kings and nobles found it repugnant that England ’s king owned land in France
§
England
and France quarreled over
control of Flanders
§
General animosity between England and France
o
French Weakness
§
Internal disunity as French monarchy was still
undergoing centralization campaign
§
Economic troubles
§
Inferior military (English archers gave England
a clear advantage)
§
Mediocre leadership from the French monarchs (England ’s
kings were shrewd)
·
The
Progress of the War
o
Three major stages
§
Stage One: The Conflict during the reign of
Edward III
·
Edward embargoed English wool to Flanders which inspired rebellions by merchants and trade
guilds against the French monarchy in Flemish cities (Jacob van Artevelde, a
rich merchant, organized the revolts)
o
The Flemish cities entered an alliance with the
English and recognized Edward III as their king
·
English naval victory in the Bay of Sluys
·
Battle of Crecy (1340)
o
English victory in Normandy
that led to the seizure of the French port of Calais
·
pause in action during the plague years
·
Battle of Poitiers (1356)
o
Stunning English victory over the French noble
cavalry
o
French King John II taken hostage by the English
§
French Estates General took power in France and used the opportunity to gain rights
like those achieved by England ’s
nobles in the Magna Carta
·
French nobles increase the taille to repair damages from war and the peasants revolt in what
is known as the Jacquerie (1358)
o
Revolt was quickly stamped out
·
Peace of Bretigny-Calais (1360)
o
Ended English monarchs vassalage to the French
king and affirmed England ’s
king sovereignty over Gascony , Guyenne,
Poitou, and Calais .
o
France
paid a ransom of 3 million gold crowns for King John II
§
Stage Two: French Defeat and the Treaty of Troyes
·
After Edward III died in 1377, England experience domestic issues
during the reign of Richard II
o
English Peasants’ Revolt (1381)
§
John Ball and Wat Tyler led the revolt
§
peasants and artisans joined together to demand
privileges
·
England
resumed the war under Henry V
o
Battle of Agincourt (1415)
§
English victory that left a large percentage of
the French nobility dead
§
France
powerless against England
o
Treaty of Troyes
(1420)
§
named Henry V the successor to the French king,
Charles VI
·
when Henry V and Charles VI died within months
of each other, the infant Henry VI of England
was proclaimed in Paris to be the king of both France and England
§
son of Chalres VII was acknowledges as king by
most of the French people and this raised the sense of nationalism in France
§
Stage Three: Joan of Arc and the War’s
Conclusion
·
Joan of Arc and the siege of Orleans
o
Peasant from Lorraine
in eastern France who visited Charles VII and claimed that God had called her
to expel the English from the province
of Orleans
o
Although skeptical, Charles was desperate and
put her in command of an army
o
Joan successfully ousted the English from Orleans and France experienced a wave of
victories
·
The capture of Joan of Arc
o
The Burgundians, who were allies of the English,
captured and turned Joan of Arc over to the Inquisition in England
o
She was executed as a heretic on May 30, 1431
o
Charles VII declared her innocent 25 years later
o
The Roman Catholic Church canonized her as a
saint in 1920.
·
The duke of Burgundy
made peace with the French king in 1435, allowing France to push the English back
·
By 1453, when the war ended, England maintained control of only Calais
§
Implications of the Hundred Years’ War
·
Awakened French nationalism and called for the
transition to a centralized state
·
Burgundy
became a major European power
·
England
developed its own clothing industry and foreign markets as they could not rely
on the Netherlands
during the conflict due to its see-sawing allegiance throughout the war
·
English and French peasants faced high taxation
to pay for the cost of war
Section Three: Ecclesiastical Breakdown and Revival—The Late Medieval
Church
·
Section
Overview
o
By the latter thirteenth-century, the Roman
Catholic Church appeared to be extremely powerful.
§
Threat of Holy Roman Empire to Rome vanquished
§
The French king, Louis IX, was an enthusiastic
supporter of the Church
§
Council of Lyons (1274) declared a reunion of the
Eastern Church with Rome after the pope sent forces to defend the Byzantine
Empire against the Turks (the reunion only lasted seven years)
·
The
Thirteenth-Century Papacy
o
Pope Innocent III (r. 1198-1216) and the height
of papal power
§
Innocent enacted the doctrine of plentitude of
power which enabled him to:
·
declare saints
·
dispose benefices
·
create a centralized papal monarchy with a clear
political mission
§
secularization of the Church during Innocent’s
reign as pope ignited the criticisms that would last until the Protestant
Reformation
o
Pope Urban IV (r. 1261-1264)
§
Urban IV established the Rota Romana, the papacy’s own court of law
o
Other power grabs made by the church in the
thirteenth-century
§
popes claimed the right to determine
appointments to many church offices
§
expansion of the church’s bureaucracy
§
made clerical taxes instituted to raise money
for the Crusades permanent
o
Impact of these reforms
§
Rome’s interest, not local needs, came to
control church policies and the church in Rome slowly began to lost popular
support
§
heretical groups like the Cathars and
Waldensians advocated apostolic piety
o
political
fragmentation
§
During the centuries that the Holy Roman Emperor
intervened and threatened Italy, the city-states and the papacy stood
united. When the Holy Roman Emperor
became irrelevant on the Italian Peninsula, the pope and College of Cardinals
became the targeted by their former allies.
·
Charles of Anjou, the French king of Naples and
Sicily, used his influence to create a French-Sicilian faction within the
college of cardinals
·
Rules for a conclave
·
Pope Celestine V
o
devout, but inept, hermit who was elected pope
in 1294
o
forced to resign under suspicious circumstances
o
died under suspicious circumstances
o
Pope Boniface VIII, a nobleman and skilled
politician (the antithesis of Celestine V), elected pope
·
Boniface
VIII and Philip the Fair
o
Historical background
§
Boniface became pope at the same time as England
and France were maturing nation-states.
·
Edward I promoted unity in England by organizing
formal meetings with the newly formed Parliament
·
Philip IV centralized the monarchy in France and
was determined to end England’s landholdings in France, control wealthy
Flanders, and establish French hegemony in the Holy Roman Empire.
§
Essentially, the pope was no longer a match for
the budding nation-states of western Europe
o
Royal
Challenge to Papal Authority
§
Conflict between King Edward I and Pope Boniface
VIII over the king’s right to tax the clergy in England.
·
Edward I taxed clergy for a “crusade” to help
finance England’s mobilization effort
·
Innocent issues a papal bull Clericos Iaicos
o
forbade lay taxation of the clergy without papal
approval
·
Edward I retaliated by denying the clergy the
right to be heard in royal courts, thus denying them the king’s protection in legal
matters
§
Conflict between Philip IV of France and Pope
Boniface VIII
·
Philip prohibited the export of money from
France to Rome, which bankrupted the Church
·
Boniface responded by giving the king of France
the right to tax the clergy in France “during an emergency”
§
Conflict between Boniface and the Colonnas
(noble family)
·
Colonnas were radical followers of St. Francis
and accused Boniface of heresy, the murder to Celestine V, and simony.
§
Another conflict between Boniface and Edward I
·
Boniface encouraged and supported Scottish
resistance to English rule
§
Another conflict between Boniface and Philip IV
·
Philip arrested Boniface’s Parisian legate (a
diplomat), Bernard Saisset (who was also a powerful secular lord and potential
rival to the king’s power)
·
Boniface issues Ausculta fili, “Listen, My Son” which states, “God has set popes
over kings and kingdoms
o
Unam
Sanctum
§
Boniface VIII’s declaration that the temporal
authority was subject to the spiritual power of the Church
§
Philip reacted aggressively to Unam Sanctum
·
Pope Boniface VIII was declared a heretic in
France
·
Philip’s army captured and beat up the pope
before a crown rescued Boniface and returned him to Rome; the pope died shortly
thereafter
§
Pope Clement V (r. 1305-1314) succeeds Boniface
and is subservient to the French king
·
Clement declared that Unam Sanctum does not diminish the power of the French monarchy
·
Clement moved the papal court to Avignon, a city
on the southeastern border of France, where it remained from 1311-1377.
·
The
Avignon Papacy
o
Papacy under strong French influence while in
Avignon
o
Clement V in need of revenue
§
Started the practice of collect annates, the first year’s income of a
new benefice
§
Started the practice of selling indulgences,
pardons for unrepented sins.
·
Not surprisingly, the church marketed the idea
of purgatory during this same period
o
Avignon papacy gained a reputation for
materialism and corruption
o
Pope John
XXII (1316-1334)
§
Pope John XXII tried to restore papal
independence and return to Italy and created several enemies in the process
·
the Visconti, the ruling family in Milan, did
not want to see the papacy return to Rome
·
Pope John XXII instigated a feud with Holy Roman
Emperor Louis IV when he refused to accept his candidacy for the imperial title
o
Louis IV, in retaliation, declared an antipope
o
Louis also recruited two scholars, Marsilius of
Padua and William of Ockham, to support his cause
§
Marsilius of Padua, Defender of Peace (1324)
·
stressed the independence of secular rulers
·
piety expected of clergy and duties confined to spiritual
activities, not ruling
·
pope depicted as a subordinate member of society
over which the emperor ruled supreme
o
National
Opposition to the Avignon Papacy
§
England opposed the Avignon Papacy as they saw
it intimately attached to France, England’s enemy in the Hundred Years’ War
§
Pragmatic
Sanction of Bourges (1438)
·
agreement that recognized the right of the
French Church to elect its own clergy
without papal interference
·
prohibited the payment of annates to Rome
·
limited the right of appeals from French courts
to the Curia in Rome
·
Wycliffe
and Hus
o
Wycliffe and the Lollards
§
Wycliffe and his issues
·
Oxford theologian and a philosopher of high
standing
·
he became
a major spokesperson against the secularism of the papacy
·
advocated apostolic piety
·
anticipated Protestant criticisms of the
medieval church by challenging papal infallibility, the sale of indulgences,
and the dogma of transubstantiation
§
The Lollards (Wycliffe’s followers)
·
preached in vernacular, distributed translations
of the Bible, and advocated clerical piety
·
Lollards were popular with the nobility and
gentry who could potentially gain from a weakening Catholic Church
§
After the English Peasants’ Revolt in 1381, an
uprising filled with egalitarian principles that could find support in Wycliffe’s
teaching, Lollardy became a capital offense in England by 1401.
o
John Hus
§
Czech reformer and professor at the University
of Prague
§
supported vernacular translations of the Bible
and criticized several aspects of the sacrament of Eucharist
§
he was excommunicated in 1410 and Prague was
placed under the interdict
§
Council of Constance
·
Hus declared a heretic and executed in 1415
§
Hussites revolted following Hus’s execution and
gained significant religious reforms and control over the Bohemian church
·
The Great
Schism (1378-1417) and the Conciliar Movement to 1449
o
Section overview
§
Pope Gregory XI (1370-1378) reestablished the
papacy in Rome in January 1377, ending what had become known as the “Babylonian
Captivity” of the Church in Avignon.
§
The return to Rome proved to be short lived.
o
Urban VI
and Clement VII
§
When Gregory XI died, the cardinals elected an
Italian archbishop as Pope Urban VI
·
Urban VI wanted to reform the Curia
·
French cardinals called for the return of the
papacy to Avignon
·
French King, Charles V, supported what came to
be known as the Great Schism
§
French cardinals formed a conclave and elected
Pope Clement VII, a cousin of the French king
·
The French cardinals claimed they had only voted
for Urban VI out of fear
§
Allegiances to the two popes
·
Urban VI (Italian pope in Rome)
o
supported by England and its allies including
the Holy Roman Empire, Hungary, Bohemia, and Poland)
·
Clement VII
o
supported by France and its allies including
Naples, Scotland, Castile, and Aragon
o
Conciliar
Theory of Church Government
§
conciliar theory
·
technically, since a pope is infallible, a
council could not depose him
·
church scholars debated for thirty years whether
or not a council of church leaders could regulate the actions of a pope
·
‘conciliarists’ defined the church as a body, of
which the pope was one member
·
Eventually, it was determined that cardinals
representing both popes would convene at a council
o
Council
of Pisa (1409-1410)
§
Cardinals convened and deposed both popes and
elected a new pope, Alexander V
§
Although most of western Europe accepted
Alexander V a the legitimate pope, neither Urban VI nor Clement VII agreed to
step down
o
The
Council of Constance (1414-1417)
§
Three competing popes
·
John XXIII succeeded Alexander V as the
consensus pope
·
Gregory XII succeeded Urban VI as the Italian
pope
·
Clement VII was still the French pope
§
Emperor Sigismund demanded that John XXIII call
a council in Constance which made a declaration entitled Sacrosancta which:
·
elected a new pope, Martin V (the three other
popes were forced to resign)
·
asserted the supremacy of church councils over
individual pope
·
demanded that regular meetings of church
councils
o
The
Council of Basel (1431-1449)
§
Church council negotiated directly with the
Hussites, a group formerly identified as heretics
§
Four
Articles of Prague presented to council by Hussites
·
give laity the Eucharist with the cup as well as
bread
·
free, itinerant preaching
·
exclusion of clergy from holding secular offices
and owning property
·
just punishment of clergy who commit mortal sins
§
Council of Basel showed dominance over the
papacy but Pope Pius II (r. 1458-1464) issued a papal bull Execrabilis which condemned appeals to councils and made them
completely void.
o
Consequences
§
Without effective papal authority and
leadership, secular control of national or territorial churches increased
·
Kings asserted their power over the church in
England and France
·
German, Swiss, and Italian magistrates and city
councils reformed and regulated religious life
Section Four: Medieval Russia
·
Section
Overview
o
Prince Vladimir (r. 980-1015) of Kiev (Russia’s
dominant city at the time) chose to make Greek Orthodox the religion in Russia
and thereby established close ties with the Byzantines.
·
Politics
and Society
o
Yaroslav
the Wise succeeded Ladimir and developed Kiev into a magnificent cultural and
political center
o
Following Yaroslav’s death, princes divided
Russia into three cultural groups: the Great Russians, the White Russians, and
the Little Russians (Ukranians)
o
Government
§
Prince, council of nobles, popular assembly of
all free adult males
o
Social division
§
freemen (clergy, army officers, boyars,
townspeople, and peasants)
§
slaves (prisoners of war)
·
Mongol
Rule
o
In the thirteenth century steppe peoples known
as Mongols swept through China, the Islamic world, and Russia.
o
Ghengis Khan
§
notorious Mongol leader who invaded Russia in
1223
§
established a Mongol Empire known as the Golden Horde
o
Russia was forced to pay tribute to their Mongol
overlords and to fight in the Mongol army
o
Russian culture fused with that of the Mongols,
who had adopted Islam as their faith
o
In 1380, Grand Duke Dimitri of Moscow defeated
the Mongols at Kulikov Meadow, and Mongol influence in Russia slowly withered
away.
o
Ivan III (d. 1505) would eventually bring all of
northern Russia under Moscow’s control and officially ended Mongol
occupation.
§
Moscow replaced Kiev as political and religious
center of Russia
Mr. Dunbar
AP European History
Chapter 10 Outline: Renaissance and
Discovery
Section
One: The Renaissance in Italy
·
Section Overview
o Jacob
Burckhardt, a Swiss historian, described the Renaissance as the “prototype of
the modern world” in his book Civilization
of the Renaissance in Italy (1860)
§ In
Italy blossomed new secular and scientific views
§ People
became to approach the world empirically and draw rational conclusions based on
observation
§ Burckhardt
saw the emergence of the modern world emerge from that of the pre-modern, or
medieval, period
§ Some
criticize Burckhardt for overlooking the continuity between the Middle Ages and
the Renaissance
o Scholars
agree that the Renaissance (1375-1527)was a transition from medieval to modern
times
§ Different
from the feudal fragmentation of medieval times, Renaissance Europe was
characterized by growing national consciousness and political centralization,
an urban economy based on organized commerce and capitalism, and growing lay
control of secular thought and culture
·
The Italian City State
o Growth
of City-States
§ When
commerce revived in the eleventh century, Italian merchants mastered the
organizational skills needed for trade: book-keeping, scouting new markets,
securing new markets, and banking
§ During
the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, trade-rich cities became powerful
city-states, dominating the political and economic life of the surrounding
countryside
§ Incessant
warfare between pope and emperor and the Guelf [propapal] and Ghibelline
[proimperial] factions created an environment in which city-states could emerge
and expand as the two major powers weakened each other
§ A
unique urban rich emerged in Italy comprised of the local nobility and new rich
§ Five
major city-states evolved: the duchy of Milan, the republics of Florence and
Venice, the Papal States, and the Kingdom of Naples
o Social
Class and Conflict
§ Florence
as an example of social division and anarchy
·
Four social groups of Florence
o Grandi—the old rich, or nobles and
wealthy merchants who traditionally had ruled the city
o Popolo grosso (“fat people”)—the newly
rich merchant class, capitalists and bankers, who began to the old rich for
political powers
o Middle-burgher
ranks of guild masters, shop owners, and professionals, the smaller
businesspeople, who tended to side with the new rich against the conservative
policies of the old rich
o Popolo minuto (“little people”)—the
lower economic classes
o Popolo
Minuto (“little people”)—the lower economic classes
§ Paupers—in
1457, one-third the population of Florence, was officially listed as paupers,
or having no wealth at all
·
Ciompi Revolt—a great uprising of the poor that
occurred in Florence in 1378
o Three
reasons that made life unbearable for the lower classes
§ feuding
between the old rich and the new rich
§ social
anarchy created when the Black Death cut the city’s population almost in half
§ the
collapse of the great banking houses of Bardi and Peruzzi
o the
revolt established a chaotic four-year reign of power by the lower Florentine
classes; stability did not return to Florence until the rise of the Medici
family in 1434
o Despotism
and Diplomacy
§ Florence
and the Medici Family
·
Cosimo de’ Medici, the wealthiest Florentine and
natural statesmen, controlled the Florence from behind the scenes by
manipulating the constitution and manipulating elections
·
Signoria—a
council of first six and later of eight members governed the city; these men
were chosen from the most powerful guilds, mainly those representing the major
clothing industries (cloth, wool, fur, and silk) and such other groups as
bankers, judges, and doctors
·
Despotism in Florence
o Cosimo’s
grandson, Lorenzo the Magnificent, ruled Florence in a totalitarian fashion
during the last quarter century of the fifteenth century
o Lorenzo’s
brother had been assassinated by a rival family, the Pazzi, who had long
plotted with the pope against the Medicis which made Lorenzo a cautious ruler
§ Despotism
throughout Renaissance Italy
·
Oligarchies, or a small group of wealthy elites,
hired strongmen, or despots, known as podesta
to maintain law and order
o Podesta held executive, military, and
judicial authority, and had the task of maintaining the normal flow of business
activity in the city state by whatever means necessary
o Condottieri—military brokers who sent
mercenary armies who were hired by the despots of the different city-states;
since the despots could not rely on the loyalty of their divided populaces to
serve as soldiers, they relied on mercenaries who they contracted through condottieri
o Some
despots, like the Visconti and Sforza families in Milan, came to rule their
respective city-states free from interference from oligarchies
o Political
turbulence and warfare of the Renaissance period gave rise to the art of
diplomacy and many despots established resident embassies and appointed
ambassadors to other powerful city-states and nations
·
Humanism
o Scholars
debate over the meaning of the term humanism
§ humanism is the birth of modernity, driven by
an anti-Christian philosophy that stressed the dignity of humankind,
individual, and secularism
§ humanists
as the champions of Catholic Christianity, opposing the pagan teachings of
Aristotle
§ humanism
is a form of historic scholarship adopted to promote a sense of civic
responsibility and political liberty
§ Paul
Kristellar, a famous historian, believes that humanism was not philosophy or
value system, but an educational program built on rhetoric and scholarship
o Most
scholars agree that humanism was the scholarly study of Latin and Greek
classics and of the ancient Church Fathers, both for its own sake and in the
hope of reviving ancient norms and values
§ Humanists
advocated the studia humanitatis, a
liberal arts program of study embracing , rhetoric, poetry, history, politics,
and moral philosophy
§ First
humanists were orators and poets, wrote literature in classical languages and vernacular,
taught rhetoric and grammar at universities, and worked at princely courts as
secretaries, speechwriters, and diplomats
§ Humanists
ideas were spread throughout Italy when the Byzantine, Greek scholar
Chrysoloras took a position as the head of classical learning at a university
in Florence
o Early
humanists
§ Francesco
Petrarch—the father of humanism
·
Wrote personal letters to Cicero, Livy, Virgil,
and Horace
·
Wrote a Latin Epic poem, Africa, a tribute to a Roman general, and biographies of famous
Roman men
·
Sonnets
to Laura remains his most famous work
·
Classical and Christian values coexist in his
works
§
Dante Alighieri
·
Wrote Vita
Nuova and Divine Comedy which
were far less secular than Petrarch’s works
§
Giovanni Boccaccio
·
Wrote Decameron,
a collection of one hundred tales told by three men and seven women in a
country retreat away from plague-ravaged Florence; it is a social commentary
about sexual and economic misconduct as well as a sympathetic look at human
nature
o
Educational Reforms and Goals
§
Pietro Paolo Vergerio wrote On the Morals That Befit a Free Man which is the most influential
tract on education which encouraged the ideal of a useful education and
explained that well-rounded people inspired far-reaching reforms in traditional
education
§
Baldassare Castiglione’s Book of Courtier was written for the nobility at the court of Urbino,
a small duchy in central Italy; it provided humanists guidelines for the
standard of education and etiquette to which a member of court ought to aspire
§
Christine de Pisan wrote many poems, but most
notably The Treasure of the City of
Ladies, which was a chronicle of the accomplishments of the great women of
history
o
The Florentine Academy and the Revival of
Platonism
§
Unlike their medieval predecessors who embraced
Aristotle, Renaissance scholars embraced the Greek scholar Plato
·
Platonism appealed to Renaissance scholars due
to its flattering view of human nature
o
Platonism distinguished between an eternal
sphere of being and the perishable world in which humans actually lived
§
Cosimo de Medici provided the patronage to
create the Florentine Platonic Academy
·
The academy was not actually a school, but
rather an informal gathering of Renaissance humanists devoted to the revival of
Plato and Neoplatonists
·
Marsilio Ficino and Pico della Mirandola
supervised the academy
o
Pico’s Oration on the Dignity of Man is perhaps
the most famous Renaissance statement on the nature of humankind—the study of
human nature, the predecessor to modern psychology, was first studied by
Renaissance humanists
§
Oration depicts
human beings as the only creatures capable of controlling their own
destiny—capable of rising to the level of angels but also just as quickly
wallowing with pigs
o
Critical Work of the Humanists: Lorenzo Valla
§
Sometimes unintentionally, humanists works—like
those of Valla—were critical of longstanding traditions like the Catholic
Church
§
Valla’s Elegances
of the Latin Language revealed that a document titled Donation of Constantine, purported to be a grant of vast
territories that the Roman emperor Constantine donated to the Pope during the
fourth century, was fraudulent
·
Valla used textual analysis and historical logic
to prove that the document had been written in the eighth, rather than the
fourth, century
·
Less than a century later, Valla became a hero to Protestant reformers
o
Civic Humanism emerged out of the belief that
education—unlike that provided by scholastics—should promote individual virtue
and public service
§
Three famous civic humanists were Coluccio
Salutati, Leonardo Bruni, and Poggio Bracciolini who used their rhetorical
skills to rally the Florentines against the aggression of Naples and Milan
·
Renaissance Art
o
New themes and techniques
§
In Renaissance Italy the values of interests of
the laity were no longer subordinate to those of the clergy and the laity
established models in education and culture for the clergy to emulate
·
This happened due to the loss of international
power of the Church in the late Middle Ages when the rise of national
sentiments and national bureaucracies—staffed by laymen rather than
clerics—took a leadership role in the rapid expansion of lay education
·
Medieval Christian values were adjusted to a
more this worldly spirit
§
Renaissance art embraced the natural world and
human emotions and gave their work a rational, even mathematical, order—perfect
symmetry and proportionately reflecting a belief in the harmony of the of universe
§
Availability of oil paints improved the quality of paintings
§
Chiaroscuro,
the use of shading to enhance naturalness, and linear perspectivism, the adjustment of the size of figures to give
the viewer a three-dimensional sense of the painting, equipped artists with the
ability to create realistic paintings
§
Early Renaissance Artists
·
Giotto—considered by many as the first
Renaissance artist
o
inspired by his love for Saint Francis, whose
love for nature he shared, Giotto painted a more natural world
o
though still devoutly religious in practice and
theme, Giotto’s works were no longer abstract and unnatural like the paintings
that preceded him
·
the painter Masaccio and sculptor Donatello also
portrayed the world around them naturally
§
Leonardo da Vinci
·
a true Renaissance man who was one of the
greatest painters of all time, advised Italian princes and the French king
Francis I on military engineering, advocated scientific experimentation,
dissected corpses to learn anatomy, etc
·
most famous painting The Mona Lisa shows his skill at conveying inner moods through
complex facial expressions
§
Raphael
·
Famous for his portrayals of the Madonna and his
frescoes in the Vatican
·
His School
of Athens is a perfect example of Renaissance technique as it depicts Plato
and Aristotle surrounded by other great philosophers and scientists
§
Michelangelo
·
His statue David
is a perfect example of Renaissance harmony, symmetry, and proportion, all
serving the glorification of the human form
·
Frescoes in the Sistine Chapel were commissioned by Pope Julius II and remains the
crowning achievement of Renaissance painting
·
His later works are more complex and suggest
deep personal changes and mark the passing from the High Renaissance style of
painting—which valued symmetry and simplicity—to a new style known as
mannerism—which accepted the strange and abnormal, giving freer reign to the
individual perceptions and mood of the artist
o
Tintoretto and El Greco are mannerism’s best
examples
·
Slavery in the Renaissance
o
Slavery developed in Italy in the twelfth
century when the Spanish sold Muslims they captured in raids and war to wealthy
Italians and other buyers
§
This form of slavery was perceived as a merciful
act by contemporaries as the alternative would mean death for these captives
o
Slaves were used as domestic slaves and to work
on plantations in the savannahs of the Sudan and the Venetian estates on the
islands of Cyprus and Crete where sugarcane was grown
o
When the Black Plague caused a major labor
shortage in Italy, the number of slaved soared and were captured randomly and
consisted of people of many races including Tatars, Circassians, Greeks,
Russians, Georgians, and Iranians as well as Africans and Asians
§
Slaves became so commonplace in Tuscany that
nearly every well-to-do household possessed them
Section Two--Italy’s Political Decline: The French Invasions
(1494-1527)
·
Section Overview
o
As a peninsula of autonomous city-states, Italy
had relied on internal cooperation in the second half of the fifteenth
century to provide a united front
against outside invaders
§
Treaty of
Lodi (1454) brought Milan and
Naples, long traditional enemies, into an alliance with Florence and these
three city-states stood together in opposition to an alliance between Venice
and the Papal States
·
if a foreign enemy threatened, the five could
present a united front
o
When Ludovico
il Moro rose to power in Milan, hostilities between Milan and Naples
resumed
§
Naples, Florence, and the Pope Alexander VI allied
and threatened Milan
§
Ludovico asked the King of France for help
·
French kings had ruled Naples from 1266-1442
before forced out by Duke Alfonso of Sicily
§
Ludovico invited the French to enter Italy and
claim Naples but the French soon threatened Milan
·
Chalres VIII’s March Through Italy
o
The French army marched over the Alps and into
Florence
§
Piero de’ Medici, leader of Florence who was
allied with Naples against Milan, tried to placate Chalres VIII by handing over
Pisa and other Florentine possessions
·
This offering led the citizenry of Florence, who
were inspired by a Dominican preacher named Girolamo Savonarola, to exile Piero
de’ Medici from Florence
·
Savonarola convinced the people of Florence that
the French were the rightful rulers of Florence
·
Charles VIII leaves Florence under the control
of Savonarola
o
The League of Venice
§
Ferdinand of Aragon —hoping to gain land in
Italy from a base he established in Sicily—found himself vulnerable so he
established the League of Venice with the Papal States, and Emperor Maximilian
I
·
This set the stage for a bitter rivalry between
France and Spain
§
Ludovico, realizing the fatal mistake he made by
inviting France to Italy, joined the League of Venice
o
Charles VIII and his French army are forced to
retreat from Italy due to the strength of the League of Venice
·
Pope Alexander VI and the Borgia Family
o
France returned to Italy under Charles’s
successor, Louis XII, when Pope Alexander VI assisted them
o
Alexander VI is known as the most corrupt Pope
in history who aligned his Church policies with his personal ambition to gain
power and land
§
Alexander VI openly promoted the political
careers of his two sons Cesare and Lucrezia
o
The Papal States had lost territory in the
Romagna during the years the papacy operated from Avignon and Alexander VI
aligned with the French king Louis XII to regain this territory
o
In 1499 Louis XII and his French army invaded
Milan and conquered Naples which was split and half given to Ferdinand of
Aragon
o
Alexander and his son Cesare Borgia were
supported in their conquest of the cities of the Romagna by the French
§
Cesare Borgia was given the title Duke of
Romagna and this territory became the possession of the Borgia family
·
Pope Julius II—“Warrior Pope”
o
Julius’s Wars
§
Succeeded Alexander VI to the papacy and fought
incessantly to place the lands under the control of the Brogia family in the
Romagna under papal jurisdiction
§
In 1511, Julius formed the Holy League with
Ferdinand of Aragon, eventually joined by the alliance of Venice, Emperor
Maximilian I, and the Swiss; the Holy League was successful in driving France
from Italy
·
The French fought back in 1515 under the
leadership of King Francis I and the French won a few quick victories
§
Concordat of Bologna—seeking to end the French
from meddling in Italian affairs, Julius agreed to give the French king control
over the clergy in France in exchange for French recognition of the papal
authority over church council and the right to collect annates in France
o
The secular nature of the papacy during the
reign of Julius II prompted the humanist Erasmus to write the satire Julius Excluded from Heaven
·
Niccolo Machiavelli
o
He lived through the tumultuous years when
French, German, and Spanish armies wreaked havoc on Italy leading him to
conclude that Italian unity was needed
§
He believed internal fighting had led to foreign
interference
o
He was a humanist who studied classical Rome and
was impressed by the ability of the Romans to fend off enemies and their
commitment to the idea of virtu—the
ability to act decisively and heroically for the good of the country
o
In his book The
Prince, Machiavelli encourages rulers to use fraud and deceit to maintain
power; he dedicated the book to Lorenzo de’ Medici and he hoped that powerful
leader of whom he writes in The Prince
would emerge from the Medici family
§
Leo X, a member of the Medici family, had
recently been named pope and this provided hope for Machiavelli’s grand vision
§
Nonetheless, the second Medici pope, Clement
VII, fell victim to Emperor Charles V when he sacked Rome in 1527
Section Three—Revival of Monarch in Northern Europe
·
Section
Overview
o
Truly sovereign monarchs begin to consolidate
and centralize their power unlike the feudal monarchs of the High Middle Ages
who forfeited power to semi-autonomous vassals, towns, and clergy
o
After the Hundred Years’ War and the Great
Schism in the church, the nobility and the clergy were in decline and less able
to block the power of growing national monarchies
o
During this period both townspeople and monarchs
worked to create closer ties with each other.
As towns became more prosperous, kings wanted to benefit from these
commercial centers in the form of tribute and taxes. Likewise, the towns wanted the protection
that could be afforded by the king.
o
Loyal, business-wise townspeople, not the
nobility and the clergy, increasingly staffed royal offices and became the
king’s lawyers, military tacticians, and foreign diplomats. This new alliance between king and townspeople
broke the bonds of feudal society and made possible the rise of sovereign
states
o
In sovereign states, the powers of taxation, war
making, and law enforcement no longer belong to semiautonomous vassals, but are
concentrated in the hands of the monarch and exercised by his or her chosen
agents
o
Monarchies began to create standing national
armies in the fifteenth century. The
noble cavalry disappeared and was replaced by the infantry and artillery
·
France
o
Charles VII (1422-1461)
§
created a permanent professional army in France
§
he used the expertise of an independent
merchant-banker named Jacques Coeur to build a strong economy, diplomatic
corps, and national administration for France
o
Louis XI (1461-1483)
§
During his reign, the English Empire in France
ended when the English were slowly—but steadily—forced out of France during the
course of the Hundred Years’ War
§
Burgundy, a duchy in France, had maintained its
independence throughout the medieval period.
With the death of its leader, Charles the Bold, in 1477, Burgundy was
divided by French king Louis XI and Habsburg emperor Maximilian I
§
Louis XI ended his reign as king with nearly
double the land holdings he inherited when he came to the throne
§
he established a national postal system,
expanded trade and industry, and developed a lucrative silk industry
o
Louis XI’s successors, however, made poor
foreign policy decisions. For example,
France suffered from losing conquests in Italy in the 1490s and lost a series
of wars with the Habsburgs in the first half of the sixteenth century
·
Spain
o
Isabella of Castile and Ferdinand of Aragon work
to Unify Spain
§
The marriage of Isabella of Castile and
Ferdinand of Aragon in 1469 created a new power in Europe that alarmed both
France and Portugal
§
Although the marriage dynastically united the
two kingdoms, constitutionally the remained separate as each retained separate
laws, armies, coinage, taxation and cultural traditions
§
Between 1482 and 1504, Isabella and Ferdinand
had conquered the Moors in Granada, made Naples a Spanish possession, and conquered the kingdom of Navarre in the
north
§
They won the allegiance of the Hermandad, a powerful league of cities
and towns that served them rather the noble landowners
§
Spain, once a rare melting pot of Jews,
Christians, and Muslims, became a Christian nation as Ferdinand and Isabella
made Spain the shining example of a state-controlled religion
§
In 1492, non-converting Jews were exiled from
Spain and their property confiscated; in 1502, non-converted Moors were exiled
o
Isabella and Ferdinand negotiate marriages for
the offspring
§
Their eldest daughter, Joanna, married Archduke
Philip, the son of Emperor Maximilian I
·
The son of Joanna and Philip, Charles I was the
first to rule over a united Spain; with his inheritance and election as emperor
in 1519, his empire almost equaled the size of that of Charlemagne
§
Their second daughter, Catherine of Aragon,
first married Prince Arthur, the son of English king Henry VII; after Arthur’s
premature death, she married his brother Henry VIII; the failure of their marriage
led to the creation of the Anglican Church and English Reformation
o
Isabella and Ferdinand make Spain the supreme
power in Europe in the sixteenth century
§
They promoted overseas exploration from which
they benefitted when Columbus landed in the Caribbean Islands while searching
for a shorter route to the Far East.
§
They created the Spanish Empire in Mexico and
Peru whose gold a silver mines helped make Spain the wealthiest nation in
Europe
·
England
o
Turmoil in the latter half of the fifteenth
century
§
Civil war broke out between the House of York
and the House of Lancaster
·
The roots of the conflict lay in the succession
irregularities after the forced deposition of the erratic king Richard II
·
The duke of York and his supporters in the
prosperous southern towns challenged the Lancastrian monarchy of Henry IV. In 1461, Edward IV, son of the duke of York,
seized power and ruled for more than 20 years; his reign was only briefly
interrupted by Henry IV’s short-lived restoration
·
Edward IV’s brother, Richard III, usurped power
from Edward IV’s son, and after Richard’s death, the new Tudor dynasty
portrayed him as a villain who killed Edward’s sons in the Tower of London
·
Richard’s reign saw the growth for support of
the Lancastrian Henry Tudor, who came back to England from France and defeated
Richard III at the battle of Bosworth Field in 1485
o
Henry VII consolidates his power over England
§
Henry Tudor married the daughter of Edward IV,
Elizabeth of York, in order to make the throne of England uncontestable
§
He created the Court of the Star Chamber which
took the power of administering justice away from nobles and placed it firmly
in the hands of royal courts; nobles were no longer capable of rigging verdicts
to promote their interests
§
Henry manipulated English law to confiscate
lands and fortunes from nobles with such success that he was able to manage the
government without depending on Parliament for royal funds
·
Holy
Roman Empire
o
Germany and Italy were the exceptions to the
rule when France, England, and Spain steadily began to politically centralize
o
Rulers in the Holy Roman Empire continued to
partition their kingdoms, however small, among their sons; by the late
fifteenth century, Germany was divided into over three hundred independent
political entities
o
Golden Bull, an agreement reached in
1356, established a seventeen member electoral college consisting of the
archbishops of Mainz, Trier, and Cologne; the duke of Saxony; the margrave of
Brandenburg; the count of Palatine; and the king of Bohemia. They functioned as an administrative body and
elected the emperor
o
Reichstag
was created in the fifteenth century to bring to a halt the constant
feuding. It was a national assembly of
the seven electors, the nonelectoral princes, and representatives from the
sixty-five imperial free cities
Section Four—The Northern Renaissance
·
Section
Overview
o
Scholars of the northern Renaissance created
conditions that would help spring forth the Protestant Reformation as they read
original Latin texts of the Church fathers and realized many discrepancies to
the dominant Catholic orthodoxy
o
Northern humanists came from more diverse social
backgrounds and were more devoted to religious reform than their Italian
counterparts
o
The development of print, or moveable type, gave
northern humanists, the Church and state new influence to popularize their
viewpoints freely and to a wider audience
·
The
Printing Press
o
Johann Gutenberg invented printing with moveable
type in the middle of the fifteenth century in Mainz, Germany which became the
printing capital for all of western Europe
o
Books were rapidly produced on religious as well
as practical topics like how-to books on childrearing, making brandies and
liquors, curing animals, and farming
·
Erasmus
o
Northern humanists who made clear in his many
works that devout Catholics wanted the Church to reform
o
He prepared short Latin dialogues for his
students to teach them good manners of speech and how to live well, but also
anticlerical dialogues, and satires on religious dogmatism; this collection of
his dialogues were titled Colloquies
o
He also published a book of Adages which included over 5,000 contemporary and ancient proverbs
o
He encouraged what he called philosophia Christi, a simple, ethical
piety in imitation of Christ and his apostles
o
He translated old Christian texts from Latin and
Greek into vernacular languages as to be available to more people
o
In the 1520s a popular saying developed:
“Erasmus laid the egg that Luther hatched.”
·
Humanism
and Reform
o
Germany
§
Rudolf Agricola (1443-1485), the “father of
German humanism” studied in Italy under the Italian humanists and introduced
these ideas to Germany when he returned
§
Conrad Celtis, the first German poet laureate,
and Ulrich von Hutten, a fiery knight, fused humanism with nationalism that
spread ideas that were hostile toward people of non-German cultures
§
Reuchlin Affair
·
Johann Reuchlin was Europe’s foremost Christian
authority on Hebrew and Jewish learning who wrote the first reliable Hebrew
grammar by a Christian
·
Pfefferkorn, a Jewish man who converted to
Christianity, supported by the Domincan order in Cologne, began a movement to
suppress Jewish writings and Reuchlin came under attack
·
German humanists, in the name of freedom and
good scholarship, rushed to defend Reuchlin
·
The conflict lasted for years and produced Letters of Obscure Men, a merciless
satire of monks and scholastics to which von Hutten contributed
o
England
§
Visiting lecturers spread humanism to England
·
William Grocyn and Thomas Linacre lectured at
Oxford
·
Erasmus
lectured at Cambridge
§
John Colet, the dean of Saint Paul’s Cathedral,
patronized humanist studies for the young and promoted religious reform
§
Thomas More (1478-1535)—the most famous English
humanists (and close friend of Erasmus)
·
More’s book Utopia,
a conservative criticism of contemporary society, rivals the plays of
Shakespeare as the most widely read English work
o
Utopia depicted
a society based on tolerance and reason where all property was held in common
·
More was top advisor to King Henry VIII
o
When he refused to accept the Act of Supremacy
and recognize Henry VIII’s marriage to Anne Boleyn, he was executed
o
France
§
French invasions of Italy led to the permeation
of Italian humanism in France
§
Guillaume Bude—a Greek scholar—and Jacques
Lefevre d’Etaples—a biblical scholar—were the leaders of French humanism
·
Lefevre’s work influenced Martin Luther
§
The future Protestant reformer John Calvin was
educated by French humanists
o
Spain
§
Interestingly, humanism--the same weapon used to
bring down the Catholic Church in northern Protestant countries like England,
France, and Germany—was used to strengthen the Catholic Church in Spain
§
Francisco Jimenez de Cisneros, advisor to Queen
Isabella and appointed “Grand Inquisitor” and Spanish scholar of humanism,
enforced strict Catholic orthodoxy
·
Founded the University of Alcala near Madrid
·
His greatest achievement was the Complutensian Polygot Bible in which he
placed the Hebrew, Greek, and Latin versions of the Bible in parallel columns
Section Five—Voyages of Discovery and the
New Empires in the West and East
·
Section
Overview
o
Discovery of the Americas expanded European
horizons both intellectually and geographically
o
Mineral and human wealth set in motion the engines
of capitalism and trade shifted from the Mediterranean and Baltic areas to the
Atlantic seaboard
·
The
Portuguese Chart the Course
o
Prince Henry the Navigator, the brother of the
king of Portugal, captured the North African Muslim city of Ceuta
§
He was in search of gold, slaves, and also
launched missionary efforts here to save the Muslims
§
Portuguese ships delivered over 150,000 slaves
to Europe in the second half of the fifteenth century
§
Henry searched for a safe route around the tip
of Africa to Asia’s spice market
·
Cloves and pepper were the most sought after
spices
§
Prior to Henry’s expedition, a limited supply of
spices had been made available by Venetian merchants who purchased them from
Egyptian markets or trading posts in the Ottoman Empire
o
Bartholomew Dias was the first Portuguese
explorer to sail around the Cape of Good Hope in 1487
o
Vasco da Gama sailed all the way to India and
returned with a vessel filled with spices worth 60X the cost of the voyage
o
The Portuguese established colonies in Calcutta
and Goa on the cost of India
·
The
Spanish Voyages of Columbus
o
Whereas Portuguese exploration focused east on
India, the Spanish sought a faster route to the east, and access to the spice
trade, by sailing west across the Atlantic
o
Columbus’ first voyage across the Atlantic took
thirty-three days and when he landed in San Salvador in the eastern Bahamas, he
thought he had landed on an outer island of Japan
§
Not until his third voyage to the Caribbean in
1498 did he realize Cuba was not Japan and South America was not China
§
Believing he landed in the East Indies, Columbus
called the Taino Indians—who spoke a language known as Arawak—Indians, a name
that stuck with Europeans
o
Amerigo Vespucci and Ferdinand Magellan explored
the coastline of South America
§
Magellan rounded the tip of South America and
continued onto the Pacific Ocean where he landed and was killed in the
Philippines
o
Intended and unintended consequences
§
The Spanish launched a series of wars of
conquests, along with missionary efforts, against the native people of the
Americas
§
Gold and silver extracted from Spain’s colonies
in America helped ignite a period of economic expansion in Europe and finance
Spain’s wars of religion in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries
§
American Indian population were devastated by
the epidemics of measles and smallpox that the Europeans carried with them
while they returned to Europe with a deadly strand of syphilis
§
Spanish conquests in North and South America
left an imprint of Roman Catholicism, economic dependency, and hierarchical
social structure, all still visible today
·
The
Spanish Empire in the New World
o
Spanish Conquests of the Aztecs in Mexico
§
The Aztecs ruled all of Central America from
their capital of Tenochtitlan (modern-day Mexico city) when the Hernan Cortes
arrived in 1519
§
Cortes arrived with five hundred men and a few
horses, was initially believed to be the god Quetzalcoatl by Aztec emperor
Moctezuma II, and established an alliance with Tlaxcala—an independent state
and long enemy of the Aztecs
§
Cortes, along with his men and the Tlaxcala
marched on the Aztec capital, killing most and driving the rest from the city;
he declared this land New Spain
o
Spanish Conquests of the Incas in Peru
§
Incas controlled an enormous empire in the
highlands of Peru
§
Francisco Pizarro landed on the western coast of
South America with a group of 200 men, killed Atahualpa—the leader of the
Incas—and captured Cuzco, their capital
o
This marks the transformation of South America
into Latin America
·
The
Church in Spanish America
o
Missionaries accompanied the earliest explorers
and conquerors and attempted to convert Europeans to Christianity, and brought
with them European style of education and civilization
o
A Dominican missionary, Bartolome de Las Casas
was outspoken about the poor treatment of natives; he also believed that
conquests was not necessary for conversion
o
The colonial Church prospered as the Spanish
elite prospered by exploiting the resources and peoples of the New World
o
The Church became a great landowner in the new
world as it was given large tracts of land by the crown
·
The
Economy of Exploitation
o
Mining
§
Conquistadores set up gold and silver
mines—Potosi in Peru
§
Forced natives to labor in the mines
o
Agriculture
§
Hacienda—unit of land owned by persons born in
Spain (peninsulars) or persons of
Spanish descent born in America (creoles)--
which were labored by natives who had little legal freedom and no legal right
to move around (similar to the status of serfs in medieval Europe)
§
Hacienda economy produced food for the mining regions
and leather goods used in mining machinery
§
In Cuba, Hispaniola, Puerto Rico, and other
islands, black Africans worked as slaves on the sugar plantations
o
Labor Servitude
§
Encomienda—a
formal grant of the rights to the labor of a specific number of Indians for a
designated period of time
§
Encomienda
was replaced by the repartimiento—a
law that required male Indians to devote a designated number of days annually
to Spanish economic enterprise
§
Debt
peonage—free Indian laborers were required to purchase goods from the
landowner of mine owner, to whom they became forever indebted; this practice
lasted well into the twentieth century
o
Interesting Fact—The native population of Mexico
was reduced from 25 million to 2 million
·
The
Impact of Europe
o
Columbus’s discovery demonstrated folly of
relying on any fixed body of presumed authoritative knowledge.
o
Enlightenment philosophers compared Columbus’s
discovery of the New World to the invention of the printing press in terms of
their statuses as world historic events
o
New wealth enabled governments and private
entrepreneurs to sponsor research and expansion in printing, shipping, mining,
textile, and weapons industry
§
Whenever possible, entrepreneurs established
monopolies
o
New industries disrupted the traditional social
divisions and this made the way for the Reformation by making people critical
of all traditional institutions
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